Studies in the History of Natural Sciences

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Transnational Scientific Competition during the Early Republic of China: A Case Study of the Mission Paléontologique Française

HAN Qi, CHEN Mi

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2020, 39 (1): 1-23.

Abstract （1239）

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Geology was one of the first institutionalized modern disciplines during the early Republic of China. Under the influence of the hypothesis of the Asian origin of modern humans at that time, the north part of China became an arena for scientists from different countries to compete in search of ancient human sites. Among them, Swedish, American and French scientists played a major role. This article mainly focuses on the foundation of the Mission Paléontologique Française, explicating the complicated transnational scientific activities and ensuing priority disputes. It also analyses how V. K. Ting seized the initiative in the competition, and how French geologists made use of the Catholic network to participate in the early development of Chinese geology within the context of international academic competition.

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Collation of the Disordered Text on the “Outward Curve” and “Inward Curve” in the “Bowyer” Section of the Kaogong Ji

WENREN Jun

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2020, 39 (1): 24-34.

Abstract （851）

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The “Bowyer” section of the Kaogong ji may be the earliest document of on bow making in the world. The technical term, the “outward curve ( wang ti)”, refers to the reflex when unstrung; and the “inward curve ( lai ti)”, the deflex when strung. According to Shen Kuo's Mengxi bitan, a bow with less reflex is less powerful than a bow of the same design but with more reflex. Based on evidence from both the “method to make a circle” and wood-cutting guide of the Kaogong ji itself, the six bow order of Zhouli, the Mengxi bitan, and modern archery, the author has proved that a traditional composite bow with more reflex and less deflex is more powerful than a bow of the same design but with less reflex and more deflex. Certain commentaries on the “Bowyer” section have been wrong for almost two thousand years, because of disorder in the extant text. The collated text reads: “Bows of the king's class are curved when unstrung and slightly curved when strung. These are advantageously used in shooting at shields, armors, and wood marks. Bows of the hunting and fowling classes are slightly curved when unstrung and curved when strung. They are used in shooting at archery targets or flying birds. Bows of the Tang class are equally curved, whether strung or unstrung. They are used with advantage in shooting deep into an object.”

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Research of the “Debate on Watching the Ethers” during the Middle and Late Ming Dynasty

PAN Dalong

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2020, 39 (1): 53-64.

Abstract （737）

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The mid to late Ming dynasty is a key period in the decline of “Watching the Ethers”. During the early Ming, Watching the Ethers was included into the official music system in The New Book of Temperament, and the discussion around authentication of the practice developed against this background. Based on the views of all parties, the process of discussion can be summarized as going through three stages corresponding to the reigns of Chenghua and Hongzhi, Zhengde and Jiajing, and Longqing and Wanli. The main influences on the debate were changes in the official music system and fluctuations in the views of each party.

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Between the Ambition and Reality: Michael Faraday and the Royal Institution of Great Britain

WANG Luoyin

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2020, 39 (1): 111-123.

Abstract （644）

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Michael Faraday's ambitions for his scientific career were closely related to the special experiences of his early years, and the realization of these ambitions was intimately connected to the Royal Institution.The environment of the Royal Institution gave him both economic and academic freedom, which are vital scientific innovation, and the realization of his ambitions had a great influence on the developments of the Royal Institution and society at large.Through their achievements, they forged a community of shared destiny, one that embodied the interaction of individual, institutional and social factors.

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A Probe into the Problems of Gougu Hejiao in Zhongxi Shuxue Tushuo
GAO Feng
Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2020, 39 (2): 135-151.

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Zhongxi shuxue tushuo中西数学图说( Illustration of Chinese and Western Mathematics)is a mathematical work written by Li Dupei, a scholar of the late Ming Dynasty, against the background of the introduction of western mathematics into China. The book's research on gougu hejiao勾股和较(sum and difference of three sides of right-angled triangles) was unique for the period and ground-breaking. Through an analysis of the issues tackled in the book, this paper points out that although the works Tongwen suanzhi 同文算指 and Gougu yi 勾股义 were the direct sources of knowledge on gougu hejiao in Li's work, he did not adopt the form of proof given by them that was from the Jihe yuanben 几何原本 (Chinese translation of Euclid's Elements), but instead uses the principle of churu xiangbu 出入相补(out-in complementary) from Chinese traditional mathematics. Geometric figures, which are consistent with Zhao Shuang's 赵爽 Gougu yuanfang tuzhu勾股圆方图注, are the basis for the proof of gougu hejiao problems in Zhongxi shuxue tushuo. On the basis of the existing problems of gougu hejiao, Li makes a systematic summary of all the situations in which it is used, and lays out and proves one by one the situations that need to be demonstrated. The achievements of the work have many overlaps and similarities with the work done by mathematicians in the early and middle Qing dynasty on gougu hejiao. The geometric proof and systematic summarization of gougu hejiao reflect the efforts of Zhongxi shuxue tushuo to interpret the contents of traditional mathematics under the influence of western mathematics.
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Research into the Reference Texts and Academic Communication Networks behind the Compilation of A Brief Discussion of Western Medicine (Xiyi Lüelun)

ZHANG Daqing

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2020, 39 (2): 209-228.

Abstract （535）

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This paper describes the translation and compilation of the Xiyi lüelun ( The Art and Science of Surgery), the first textbook of Western surgery in modern China. Through Benjamin Hobson's education and clinical training background, as well as clues provided in his letters and hospital reports, the paper analyzes the reference textbooks used when Hobson translated and edited Xiyi lüelun, and explores the original source books for it. The paper also discusses his academic communication network, and points out that Xiyi lüelun is a comprehensive and practical clinical textbook, compiled through the selection of a few influential textbooks of surgery circulating in the Western medical world at that time, combined with the practical experience of Western physicians in diagnosis and treatment of common diseases in China.

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A Review of Japan's Agricultural Technology Transplantation to Northeast China in Modern Times: Centered on the Promotion of Rice Planting by the Japanese Colonial Authorities

LI Yongjun, XU Maoyu

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2020, 39 (2): 229-240.

Abstract （582）

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In the late Qing Dynasty, rice planting technology in northeast China was backward, and its quality and yield were low. From 1913, Japanese colonists set up a test farm in northeast China to explore cultivation methods and varieties of rice suitable for cultivation in northeast China. After the September 18th Incident, the Japanese colonial authorities vigorously promoted rice production in northeast China, trying to make up for the gap of Japanese demand for rice production. On the whole, after the Japanese invasion, the distribution and areas of rice planting were expanded, forming an important material basis for its colonial expansion. During this process, the degree of colonization of northeast China gradually increased, and the northeast China was directly controlled and exploited by Japanese imperialism.

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An Analysis of the Agenda Information of the SHOT Annual Meetings: 2000-2019

HUANG Huang, CHEN Wei, LIU Jiasha

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2020, 39 (2): 241-261.

Abstract （662）

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This article makes ues of the agendas of the annual meetings from 2000-2019 of the Society for the History of Technology (SHOT) as the primary data source to collate the basic data of the conferences, rank the scholars, institutions and nations based on the times of the “key roles” they played in sessions, describe the social network of the participating scholars, institutions and nations using the methods of co-occurrence and cluster analysis, analyze the word frequency and time intervals of sessions and reports' titles, and finally quantify the participation of Chinses scholars and representative institutions in a comparative manner. The characteristics revealed by the results, including the progressive growth in the size of the conferences, the increasing interconnection between communities, changes over time in the participation of institutions, the hierarchical distribution of the participating nations, and the emphasis on modern and contemporary issues by participants, are described and interpreted. Instructive lessons for the future development of Chinese academic circle of history of technology are also investigated.

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A Study of Proof and the Application of Gougu Identities during Qing Dynasty

LI Zhaohua

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2020, 39 (3): 269-287.

Abstract （948）

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The Gougu rule (Pythagorean theorem) and identities are an important part of the rudiments of ancient mathematics in China. Books by mathematicians during the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) that were devoted to the amplification, proof and application of identities indicate a wealth of results that have not been specially studied. This paper lays emphasis on the investigation on examples for proof as well as the application of identities appearing in the above books. This paper points out that Gougu bili biao ( Gougu Table of Proportion, 1863) by Wu Jiashan (1820-1885) provides a complete set with a total of 20 identities. All of the principles needed for identity proving can be found in Gougu yuanfang tuzhu (Illustrated Comments on Right Angled Triangle)by Zhao Shuang early in the 3 ^rd century.Furthermore, the paper points out the relation between the application of the identities and Shuli jingyun ( Essential Principles of mathematics,1723).Based on such historical mathematical materials,a better and more comprehensive understanding of Gougu identities can be gained.

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Restoration and Simulation Experiments on the Song Dynasty Level

YI Degang, ZHANG Zhongyuan, YANG Yayu

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2020, 39 (3): 288-306.

Abstract （698）

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The splendid architectural achievements of ancient China are inseparable from level measurement technology. The Wujing zongyao and Yingzao fashi are the earliest and most complete works that graphically illustrate and explain the level in pre-modern China, the graphics and text do no match exactly. Despite many years of archaeological excavations and fieldwork, finds of levels and associated objects are still rare. Based on previous research, the original literature was used to recreate a Song Dynasty level, and related simulation experiments were carried out. The error precision was compared with that of amodern optical level.

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Research History of Terrestrial Molluscs in China, 1840-1949

CHEN Zheyu, WU Min

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2020, 39 (3): 336-354.

Abstract （1126）

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China has a rich diversity of terrestrial molluscs. Specialized research on Chinese terrestrial malacofauna commenced at the time of the First Opium War, following which most specimen collection and research were actively carried out by foreign missionaries, embassy staff and malacologists. Taxonomic studies were performed by more than seventy malacologists and resulted in the recording of more than 1500 new terrestrial mollusc species. Such activities by foreign scientists were terminated in 1949, but most of their research publications are still available. Nevertheless, some materials are imprecise or contain errors necessitating their screening and collation. Based on a variety of published material and the current situation of the location of specimen collections, the history of the discovery of China's terrestrial malacofauna during this period is reconstructed.

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The Composition of the Personnel in the Astronomical Organization during the Early Years of the Northern Song Dynasty

WANG Jichen

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2019, 38 (1): 26-39.

Abstract （1036）

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In the early years of the Northern Song Dynasty, the official astronomical institutions faced the serious situation of what was called "the scarcity of calculating experts." In order to organize a new team of astronomers, the imperial court recruited a large number of experts from amongst officials of the previous dynasty and new appointees from among the common people as Astronomical officials. However, from the late Tang and Five Dynasties, the families that produced these experts had been in decline and astronomical officials were rare, so their contribution to the development of astronomy in the early Song Dynasty was limited. Under these conditions, the imperial court recruited common people and appointed officials of special merit to fill the astronomical institutions. These people had different levels of astronomical knowledge, but their participation helped to relieve the shortage of talent. In addition, relying on the assimilation of experts from among the common people, the astronomical institutions in the early years of the Northern Song Dynasty were able to organize and absorb the astronomical knowledge scattered among the common folk in the late Tang, providing a foundation for the historical leap in the development of astronomy during the Song dynasty. This paper also provides a new research perspective to re-examine the relationship between folk astronomy and official astronomical institutions under the astronomical ban.

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Faraday's Discovery of Electromagnetic Induction and the Process of the Transformation of His Ideas

QIAN Changyan

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2019, 38 (1): 87-104.

Abstract （1406）

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In the light of Faraday's Diaries, his manuscript of 'Experimental Researches in Electricity. Series I', his letters and other literature, this paper presents a detailed investigation into Faraday's discovery of electromagnetic induction and the process of the transformation of his ideas. It points out that this process consists of two stages. In the first stage, from August 1831 to December 1831, Faraday discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. Based on his systematic experimental research into it, he put forward the concept of the electrotonic state and composed the draft of 'Experimental Researches in Electricity. Series I'. However, he misunderstood the direction of the induced currents. In the second stage, from December 1831 to April 1832, he corrected this misunderstanding of the direction of the induced currents by making more careful experimental research, formed the concept of magnetic curves, conducted systematic experimental research into Terrestrial Magneto-electric Induction, and completed the modification of 'Experimental Researches in Electricity. Series I' and the draft of 'Experimental Researches in Electricity. Series II', as well as acquiring a clearer understanding of the law of the electromagnetic induction. Furthermore, the paper argues that Faraday's correction of his misunderstandings of the direction of the induced currents played an important role in the formation of his concepts of magnetic curves and force lines. At the same time, it points out some scholars' misunderstandings concerning Faraday's discovery of electromagnetic induction, and puts forward different viewpoints regarding some controversies in Faradayan studies.

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Basic Science Research: Concept-based Historical Analysis

ZHANG Jiuchen

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2019, 38 (2): 127-139.

Abstract （510）

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Basic science research is a concept that emerged after the institutionalization of science. Although there is no unified definition for it at present, it often appears as a concept grouped together with applied research, technology development, social welfare research, etc. As one of the most important concepts of science and technology, basic science research has many in aspects, such as science and technology policy, science and technology systems, science and technology planning and programs, subject classification, scientific research activities, academic achievements, etc. Starting from the aspects of science and technology policy and social context, this paper investigates changes in its meaning and usage, and analyses perceptions of it in different historical periods. From the application of basic science research in policy and practice, this paper clarifies the impact of this concept on the enterprise of science and technology. It also focuses on analyzing the social intention behind its implementation, reflecting the development and policy trends of science and technology in contemporary China from a different perspective.

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Carrying out "Planned Science": The Formulation and Influence of Two Long-term Plans of the Chinese Academy of Sciences from 1955 to 1956

GUO Jinhai

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2019, 38 (2): 140-164.

Abstract （696）

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After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the central authorities saw science as primarily serving the national construction of industry, agriculture and defense, carrying out "planned science" and mass campaigns of learning from the Soviet Union. Against this background, the Chinese Academy of Sciences made its 15-year plan for development in 1955. In December of this year, the Academy turned to preparing its 12-year plan for scientific research undertaken within the government's Long-term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology for 1956-1967. This paper is a thorough study of the Academy's two long-term plans mentioned above and their influence. It shows that the planning method for them went through a process of change from subject-based planning to project-based planning. The content of the 15-year plan for development laid the foundation for its 12-year plan for undertaking scientific research. The paper further points out that the 12-year plan for scientific research actually belonged to the first stage of the work for making the national Long-term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology for 1956-1967, and had an important impact on the latter's content. These three closely linked plans were fundamental in China's attempts in the 1950s to use "planned science" to serve national construction and to catch up with the world's advanced nations.

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Textual Research on the Term "Jiandang Guan" in the Xiyuan Jilu

HAN Jianping

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2019, 38 (2): 165-171.

Abstract （725）

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The meaning of the term " jiandang guan" in the Tiaoling( Regulations) section of the work on Xiyuan Jilu( Collected Records of the Washing Away of Wrongs) is not clear. To date, scholars have generally taken it to refer to fixed appointment and temporary officials. However, this paper demonstrates that historical materials indicate that " jiandang guan" indicated a fixed appointment official. Relevant research by scholars of the history of the Song dynasty shows that " jiandangguan" were mainly state or county officials in charge of commercial tax collection and special commodity monopolies in cities and towns. This paper further reveals that the " jiandang guan" who functioned as temporary acting coroners stipulated in the Tiaoling section should be limited to county officials in charge of economic affairs.

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International Collaboration During China's Anti-Schistosomiasis Movement in the 1950s: Visit of the Japanese Schistosomiasis Delegation

YAN Yiwei

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2019, 38 (3): 257-277.

Abstract （805）

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The Schistosomiasis Control Program in China was a mass political movement led by the Communist Party of China in the early years of the People's Republic of China. In view of the accomplishment of Japanese researchers in the etiopathology and control measures of the disease, the Chinese Medical Association, serving as proxy for the government, invited a Japanese delegation of five parasitologists to visit China in 1956. The visit was made possible with the backing of Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai, when bilateral contact of China and Japan was dominated by nongovernmental activities in the absence of any official diplomatic relations. The Japanese delegation spent two months in China's schistosomiasis infected areas around Guangzhou, Wuhan, Beijing, Shanghai and Wuxi, carried out research work and clinical experiments in collaboration with fellow Chinese scholars, and gave a series of lectures concerning the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of the disease. Head of the delegation, Yoshitaka Komiya, submitted a report at the end of the tour, in which suggestions were offered on the grounds of their previous experiences and current observations. The article was later published in the Chinese Medical Journal. The influence of the visit won acclamation in a few English research papers, a situation in sharp contrast to the almost total neglect of it in Chinese research. Having put together information from archive documents, medical publications in Chinese, English and Japanese, writings by Komiya himself as well as other pertinent records, this paper looks back on the whole course of the visit with an emphasis on its medical side.From these viewpoints, it is argued that the visit of the Komiya delegation was not so influential as to have changed the general policy and goal of China's anti-schistosomiasis movement, but the Japanese experts did play an indispensable role in sharing with the Chinese hosts their rich practical expertise, helping the latter to solve difficult problems, all the time exhibiting good-will and genuine sincerity. Measures proposed by the delegation were soon adopted in Chinese prevention works. The visit of the Japanese Schitosomiasis Delegation thus proved to be an example of beneficial and productive international cooperation in a particular historical setting.

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The Role of CAS in the Combined Tackling of the Key Problem of Butadiene Rubber (1958-1976):The Case of the R&D Work of the Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics

FANG Yibing, SUN Song

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2019, 38 (3): 290-307.

Abstract （620）

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Butadiene rubber is the most important raw material for modern automobile tire manufacturing. From the late 1950s to 1970s, by developing a new process for the oxidative dehydroge-nation of butylene, China realized the industrial production of butadiene rubber independently through two combined efforts, and became one of the first countries in the world to use this new process for industrial production. The achievement was recognized with the award of a special grade of the National Science and Technology Progress Award in 1985. In this project, the Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics of CAS (LICP) was the developer of the process of the oxidative dehydrogenation of butylene, and participated in all stages of the necessary R&D, from the laboratory to industrialization. In this article, LICP is taken as the main research subject. Through study of archival documents of the CAS, LICP and Jinzhou Sixth Petroleum Plant, the progress of the research on oxidative dehydrogenation of butylene at LICP and its participation in China's butadiene rubber is described. The pattern and characteristics of technological innovation of new materials against the special historical background of China in the 1960s and 1970s is also explored, as well as the relationship and interaction between CAS and China's industrial technology development.

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Research on Meteorological Divination Records in Pre-modern Japan: A Case Study of Clouds

YANG Kai

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2019, 38 (3): 338-351.

Abstract （695）

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By the collection and research of pre-modern meteorological (cloud) records in Japan, 127 items were recorded covering a time span of 1182 years. Based on an analysis of the type, development, writing style and political attributions of this data, it can be seen that traditional Chinese cloud divination had long been used as a powerful tool by the Japanese. With the advent of the Shogunate era, these records exhibit two intensive cycles in the Heian era and the Shogunate. Clouds, as an integral part of celestial phenomena, were included in the observation procedures of the Japanese official astronomical institutions, but the scope in interpretation provided by their ambiguity and randomness and other defects strengthened the essential attributions of political concerns. The power of political discourse and control of the selection of historical materials directly determined the pattern of cloud records available to later generations. After the rise of other more favored divination techniques, the traditional meteorology of the Japanese aristocracy was doomed to fade gradually from the historical stage.

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Soviet Experts and the Construction of the Xin'anjiang Hydropower Station

ZHANG Zhihui

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2019, 38 (4): 383-393.

Abstract （1211）

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Xin'anjiang Hydropower Station was an important construction project that was added into the First Five-Year Plan in China. In official propaganda, the role of Soviet experts in its construction is vague. Based on plentiful archives and documents, and taking the Xin'anjiang hydropower station as an example, this paper explores the transformation of the roles and influence of Soviet experts in the construction of large and medium-sized hydropower stations in the early days of the founding of the PRC.Soviet experts provided important assistance in the construction of the Xin'anjiang hydropower station at different stages, such as geological surveys, and engineering design and construction.During the "Great Leap Forward", Soviet experts warned against the rash speed of construction, but their advice was not heeded. After the withdrawal of the Soviet experts, through the implementation of the "Eight-character Policy", China made efforts to carry out "filling, leveling and complementing" and "technological innovation" to ensure the smooth completion of the project.

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Astronomical Instruments, Diplomacy and the Scientific Community: The Looting and Return of the Peking Ancient Observatory's Instruments

CHOU Wei-chiang

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2019, 38 (4): 405-439.

Abstract （815）

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Among the acts of plunder of Chinese cultural relics by foreigners in modern history, the looting of the astronomical instruments of Beijing (Peking) Ancient Observatory was perhaps the most dramatic. Looting by German and French troops stationed in Beijing began on December 2, 1900. Their actions not only embarrassed the multinational forces, but also were immediately reported by the British and American press across the world. France returned the instruments to China under international pressure, but Germany insisted on retaining them, and transported the relics to the garden at Sanssouci in Potsdam. They were later moved to the Orangerieschloss nearby. It was not until 1919, after the end of World War I, that the astronomical instruments were returned to China under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. The looting and return of the astronomical instruments of the Beijing Ancient Observatory was a complex international political event. There are still many uncertainties surrounding the incident. This article intends to clarify some of these uncertainties using recently discovered details from historical archives and newspapers.

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An Examination of the Structural Forms and Evolution Process of the Kam Drum Towers in the Pingtan River Region

ZHANG Xingzhao, LIU Su, ZHAO Mingshan

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2019, 38 (4): 461-478.

Abstract （734）

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The drum tower is not only the clan symbol of the Kam (Dong minority), but also the embodiment of its highest construction technology. As far as the formation and development of its structure is concerned, researchers usually treat the drum towers in Hunan, Guangxi and Guizhou equally, and discuss them from the viewpoint of ethnology and social science. However, the commonly used classification methods established mainly based on previous research on the drum towers of Guangxi and Guizhou are in fact inadequate for describing the structural characteristics of the drum towers of Hunan. This paper presents the results of an investigation of the 61 drum towers of 29 villages in the Pingtan River region of Tongdao, which is the heartland of the Southern Kam in Hunan. By analyzing their structure from the perspectives of traditional timber structure concepts and modern geometry, the evolution process of the local drum towers and the classic structural forms of each historical period are elaborated.

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Supplementary Proofs and Interpretations of Liu Yueyun's Ceyuan Haijing Tongshi

LI Zhaohua

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2019, 38 (1): 1-25.

Abstract （1373）

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Gougu Ceyuanshu (Method for finding the diameter of a circle in contact with nine right triangles) recorded in Ceyuan Haijing ( Sea Mirror of Circle Measurements, 1248) is one of the most important accomplishments of mathematics in pre-modern China. Furthermore, the method was improved and systematized by mathematicians in the late Qing Dynasty. Among them was Liu Yueyun (1849-1917), who gained a better understanding of Ceyuan Haijing and completed his book Ceyuan Haijing Tongshi ( A Concise Explanation of Ceyuan Haijing,1896). However, owing to the lack of explanations and some textual errors in the transmitted text, his book is difficult to understand. Based on textual collation and calculations, this paper analyzes some of the knotty problems, and explains both Liu's theory and methods. The paper considers that, devoted to development of the theory of Gougu Ceyuan Shu, Liu's book is an example of research of considerable significance during the late Qing dynasty.

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New Research on the Junshu,a Branch of Mathematics in the Early Period of Ancient China

ZOU Dahai

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2020, 39 (4): 395-424.

Abstract （912）

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Junshu(均输, lit. equality-based transport) was an important branch of mathematics in ancient China, and is specifically discussed in Chapter 6 of the Chinese mathematical classic, Nine Chapters on Mathematical Procedures. There are many outstanding issues still to be discussed and problems in existing studies on the origins of junshu in mathematics and its relationship with the economic policies of junshu. This article uses the increasingly abundant excavated documents and extant received works to conduct a more systematic and in-depth study on the development of the junshu in mathematics in the early period of ancient China. The article provides a new generalization of the characteristics of the junshu chapter of the Nine Chapters on Mathematical Procedures, and points out that the term “ junshu” has a much broader meaning than “fair burden,” that the composition of the chapter exhibits a high degree of consistency, and that the inclusion of the mathematical problems is deliberately done by the editors and not a random arrangement. The article proves that both types of junshu in mathematics and economics have their origins in the pre-Qin period and the Qin dynasty. Though the 5 junshu problems in the extant versions of the Nine Chapters on Mathematical Procedures and 1 junshu problem in the Suanshu(算术, Mathematical Procedures) on the Western Han dynasty bamboo slips unearthed from Shuihudi were finalized in the Western Han dynasty, they should have their prototypes in the pre-Qin period and Qin dynasty. Evidence from the Shu( On Numbers) of the Qin bamboo slips preserved at the Yuelu Academy (岳麓书院) and the Suanshu shu(算数书, Book on Numbers and Computation) of the early Han bamboo slips unearthed from Zhangjiashan (张家山) indicate that some of problems 5-28 of the chapter are likely to have existed during the period from the Warring States to the early Western Han Dynasty, so there is no necessity for them having had to have been inserted in the chapter until the middle of the first century BC by Geng Shouchang.

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A Study on the Moveable Parts Technology of Bronze Chariots Unearthed from the Qin Shihuang Mausoleum

YANG Huan

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2020, 39 (4): 439-452.

Abstract （740）

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During the Chinese Bronze Age, the use of moveable parts technology in bronze items was very rare, and thus there has been little specialized research on it. In this paper, many examples of the use of moveable parts technology in the bronze chariots unearthed at the Qin Shihuang Mausoleum are studied. On the basis of careful analysis of the origins and spread of such technologies in the Chinese Bronze Age, its use in bronze chariots is classified, summarized and studied. It is found that the technology can be divided into two categories: moveable parts and detachable parts, and each category can be subdivided into sub-groups, such as parent buttons, live hinges, buttons and other types. These techniques enriched the categories of Bronze Age moveable parts technology, and gives scholars a more comprehensive understanding of metallurgical techniques of that time.

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Sumai or Xuanmai: Comments on Winter and Spring Wheat Planting Prior to the Han Dynasty
DU Xinhao
Studies in the History of Natural Sciences    2020, 39 (4): 467-475.

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Wheat can be divided into winter wheat and spring wheat according to different sowing times. Previous studies have tended to consider that all wheat grown before the Han Dynasty was winter wheat, while spring wheat was introduced from the West through the Silk Road during the Han Dynasty. By combing through and interpreting relevant historical sources, we find that spring wheat had been planted in China since at least the Western Zhou Dynasty. The latest archaeological results make it reasonable to speculate that the conversion of winter wheat to spring wheat occurred in high-altitude mountain areas via a direct route from the crescent zone to China. In the Western Han Dynasty, against the background of flood prevention and disaster prevention, crop rotation and multi-cultivation, and water conservancy construction, winter wheat ( Sumai宿麦) increased in importance in agricultural production due to its own physiological characteristics. Its cultivation also increased due to individual behavior and government activity. The name xuanmai (旋麦) came into use only to distinguish it from sumai when officials persuaded the farmers to grow wheat in the autumn, and the term should not be regarded as evidence of the initiation of spring wheat cultivation in China.

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Research Accumulates through Collective Effort, Academic Progress Comes Day-by-Day: A Review and Summary of the Planning, Preparation and Implementation of the “Major Scientific Research Projects on the History of Science and Technology” Symposium (A Note Written on Behalf of the Editors)

SUN Lie

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2020, 39 (增刊): 1-5.

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Over the past 40 years, the major scientific research projects on the history of science and technology have played a significant role in such aspects as academic research, discipline building and talent fostering. In July 2020, the Institute for History of Natural Sciences of the Chinese Academy of Sciences convened the“Major Scientific Research Projects on the History of Science and Technology” Symposium to review the planning, preparation and implementation of four completed major projects, namely, the compilation of The Complete Collection of Traditional Chinese Arts and Crafts, The History of Science and Technology in China, China Canon: Volumes of Mathematics, and The Series of Studies in the History of Science and Technology in Modern China. According to the reports made by the persons in charge of the aforementioned four projects, putting into play the strengths of collective effort and pursuing academic innovation are among the successful experience of their projects.

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The Planning and Compilation of a Magnum Opus, the History of Science and Technology in Pre-Modern China

DAI Nianzu

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2020, 39 (增刊): 6-10.

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Zhongguo kexue jishu shi ( History of Science and Technology in Pre-Modern China)refers to the 26-volume series completed under Chief Editor Lu Jiaxi, former President of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and Chen Meidong, former Director of the Institute for the History of Natural Sciences and Director of the Standing Editorial Board. The planning and compilation process of the book series is described, as well as the labours of the personnel involved. During the 20 years from 1991 to 2011 required for its completion, the series encapsulated the learning of hundreds of experts and scholars. This article presents some historical remarks and appraisals for interested readers.

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The Planning and Implementation of the Complete Collection of Traditional Chinese Handicrafts

HUA Jueming

Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 2020, 39 (增刊): 31-40.

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In 1995, the Association for Traditional Chinese Handicrafts was founded and proposed the compilation of the Zhongguo chuantong gongyi quanji ( Complete Collection of Traditional Chinese Handicrafts). In 1999, the project was formally approved, becoming one of the major research projects during the“Ninth Five-Year Plan” of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and one of the key publication projects during the“Ninth Five-Year Plan” of the National Press and Publication Administration. The subsequent two decades until 2015 witnessed the publication of 2 series of 20 books in 20 volumes, amounting to around 14 million characters and 14,000 illustrations. The key to the success of this program lies in the principles and methods adopted, including sound scientific foundations, ideas, beliefs, top-level design, personnel selection, and standardization.

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